SA is nearing peak coal, say scientists
27 September 2010 - South Africa has more coal than it can ever burn, right? If you think this, as many of us do, think again.
Research by international and local scientists has shown that coal, like other resources, is finite and can be expected to comply with peak resources theory.
The theory shows that production in commodities such as oil grows until a peak is reached, whereafter production declines. In the case of South African coal, the studies show production has already reached its peak, or soon will.
“It is commonly believed that South Africa has abundant coal reserves which will last 200 years or more,'' says Jeremy Wakeford, chair of the Association for the Study of Peak Oil (Aspo) in South Africa, in the organisation's latest newsletter.
“But recent research [from] three scientific journals suggests that usable reserves are much smaller than previously thought, and that annual production could reach a peak and begin to decline within a decade -- or might even have peaked already.''
Wakeford says that “given the country's overwhelming dependence on coal, this issue has huge ramifications for our future development path''.
Coal provides 70% of the country's energy supply, supports 90% of electricity generation, is used to make a quarter of the country's liquid fuels using the Sasol process and is a big earner of foreign exchange through exports to foreign users.
Geologist Chris Hartnady, in a paper to be published in the SA Journal of Science, has forecast peak production in 2020 at about 285-million tonnes a year.
This compares with total production last year of 242-million tons. This was mostly used by Eskom (123-million tonnes), Sasol (40-million tonnes) and export (66-million tonnes).
Eskom's current expansion programme could use an additional 50-million tonnes, and if the Sasol Mafutha project goes ahead it will need another 20-million tonnes annually, says Wakeford.
David Rutledge, a professor at the California Institute of Technology, has meanwhile forecast South African production to peak in 2011 at about 253-million tonnes a year.
This is supported by research by two American professors, says Wakeford, Tadeusz Patzek and Gregory Croft, published this year in the journal Energy.
“They estimate that South Africa's coal production from existing coal fields, when measured in energy units, peaked in 2007.
“They further contend that future mines are unlikely to reverse the trend since the economics of mining dictates that most accessible reserves are mined earlier on, so that the net energy return from the coal mining declines while the production costs rise over time,'' says Wakeford.
Eskom chief executive Brian Dames bemoaned the poor quality of coal Eskom is receiving in a briefing to parliamentarians earlier this month. Dames said that Eskom was losing 1 000 megawatts of power each day because of the low quality of coal it was being supplied.
He warned that the utility may have to start paying higher prices to improve the quality of its coal supplies and that these costs would be passed on to consumers.
Hartnady said that between 2003 and 2004 the then department of minerals and energy downsized substantially South Africa's coal reserves from about 50-billion tonnes to 30-billion tonnes.
Reserve data is so open to interpretation and, you could say, manipulation, that peak resource theorists typically base their analyses on actual production data rather than on claims of what is mineable.
Patzek and Croft in their article, which was published in May this year, said that world energy from coal production could peak as early as next year, leading to a spike in coal prices as demand continues to outstrip supply.
They predicted that production rates of coal internationally will decline after 2011, reaching 1990 levels by the year 2037. They noted that Transnet has had difficulty in achieving the 70-million tonnes nameplate value for the Richard's Bay Coal Terminal.
They quote acting chief executive Chris Wells, who said that undersupply problems from the mines had led to rail volumes falling over a three-year period.
“Rail volumes last year fell to a very disappointing 61.9-million tonnes, capping a three-year trend in underperformance.'' Wakeford said that the implications of peak coal are stark.
“The cost of coal is almost certainly going to maintain a rising trend -- albeit with greater volatility -- resulting in increasingly expensive electricity and steel.''
“Domestic demand for coal could increasingly compete with exports, raising questions around how the country's natural resources should best be utilised and the role and rights of privately owned mining companies. This is nothing new in the global energy context.''
Wakeford said that leaving aside social and environmental concerns around carbon dioxide emissions, water scarcity, pollution and health impacts, entrenching dependence on a depleting fossil fuel is taking the country down a cul-de-sac.
He said that the solution is to embark on an aggressive drive for energy conservation and efficiency while diversifying our energy mix away from coal as an imperative.
“We should not wait until coal becomes too expensive or scarce, but invest now in renewable energy infrastructure and industries.
“Renewables have proven environmental benefits, are becoming increasingly cost-competitive with fossil fuels, generate more jobs per rand invested and are essential for South Africa's long-term sustainable development
Tuesday, September 28, 2010
Monday, September 27, 2010
Electrical Energy Management
1. High-tech tools to save energy in center city
Sep 24, 2010 Charlotte Observer
Duke Energy and corporate-government partners unveiled plans Thursday to deploy cutting-edge technology to save energy in uptown Charlotte's commercial core.
The initiative, which Duke calls the first of its kind, would apply the smart-grid devices Duke is already testing in south Charlotte homes to the energy-hungry buildings in the center city.
The goal, by 2016, is to cut energy use 20 percent in about 60 buildings, including most commercial structures inside the Interstate 277 loop.
Smart grid refers to the use of digital technology and sensors to update an electrical system that has changed little, in its basics, since Thomas Edison. It uses electricity more efficiently, in part by giving consumers more information and control over their energy use.
In uptown, digital displays in each building's lobby will track its real-time energy use. Building managers will use the information to fine-tune heating, cooling and lighting. Workers, Duke hopes, will be motivated to turn off lights.
With Thursday's announcement, Duke, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, the city of Charlotte and Mecklenburg County - which control about 12 million of the 15 million square feet of commercial space inside the loop - agreed to make it a joint effort.
Organizers hope to expand it to most other commercial buildings in the uptown loop.
"We're putting control in the hands of our major customers and we're making our city one of the most energy-efficient in the world" as energy costs rise, Duke CEO Jim Rogers said in New York, where the plan was announced at the annual meeting of the Clinton Global Initiative. The Clinton initiative promotes government-private sector partnerships.
Duke worked with Charlotte Center City Partners, the uptown development group, to design a signature test of energy efficiency. It will be the first in a series of public-private projects focused on green values under an umbrella initiative called Envision: Charlotte.
Duke and technology company Cisco will front the $5.3million cost of outfitting Charlotte's commercial buildings with energy-management equipment. Duke hopes to recover some of its costs through a small energy-efficiency rider that would be added to customer bills.
Apart from saving electricity, one of the goals is to heighten awareness of energy conservation.
"One of the biggest challenges in succeeding with smart grid is changing behavior," said Ed Carney, a Cisco vice president.
Uptown buildings might compete with each other to save power. Their total energy use will be compared with that of Raleigh, Atlanta and New York.
"The real power of smart grid lies in the power of information," said Yi Deng, dean of UNC Charlotte's College of Computing and Informatics, which will help Duke analyze the energy data that's produced.
"A substantial part is behavior and how can you better manage the buildings. Right now, we don't have the information to answer those questions."
Commercial buildings waste about 30 percent of the energy they buy, the Environmental Protection Agency says. Bank of America and Wells Fargo, which together control 10 million square feet uptown, have both set corporate energy-saving goals and erected new towers that meet high efficiency standards.
Charlotte has also staked a claim as an energy capital because of the presence of Duke, 13,000 energy-related jobs in the broader region and training programs such as UNCC's Energy Production & Infrastructure Center.
"We are the right city at the right time," said Brett Carter, president of Duke Energy North Carolina.
Sep 24, 2010 Charlotte Observer
Duke Energy and corporate-government partners unveiled plans Thursday to deploy cutting-edge technology to save energy in uptown Charlotte's commercial core.
The initiative, which Duke calls the first of its kind, would apply the smart-grid devices Duke is already testing in south Charlotte homes to the energy-hungry buildings in the center city.
The goal, by 2016, is to cut energy use 20 percent in about 60 buildings, including most commercial structures inside the Interstate 277 loop.
Smart grid refers to the use of digital technology and sensors to update an electrical system that has changed little, in its basics, since Thomas Edison. It uses electricity more efficiently, in part by giving consumers more information and control over their energy use.
In uptown, digital displays in each building's lobby will track its real-time energy use. Building managers will use the information to fine-tune heating, cooling and lighting. Workers, Duke hopes, will be motivated to turn off lights.
With Thursday's announcement, Duke, Bank of America, Wells Fargo, the city of Charlotte and Mecklenburg County - which control about 12 million of the 15 million square feet of commercial space inside the loop - agreed to make it a joint effort.
Organizers hope to expand it to most other commercial buildings in the uptown loop.
"We're putting control in the hands of our major customers and we're making our city one of the most energy-efficient in the world" as energy costs rise, Duke CEO Jim Rogers said in New York, where the plan was announced at the annual meeting of the Clinton Global Initiative. The Clinton initiative promotes government-private sector partnerships.
Duke worked with Charlotte Center City Partners, the uptown development group, to design a signature test of energy efficiency. It will be the first in a series of public-private projects focused on green values under an umbrella initiative called Envision: Charlotte.
Duke and technology company Cisco will front the $5.3million cost of outfitting Charlotte's commercial buildings with energy-management equipment. Duke hopes to recover some of its costs through a small energy-efficiency rider that would be added to customer bills.
Apart from saving electricity, one of the goals is to heighten awareness of energy conservation.
"One of the biggest challenges in succeeding with smart grid is changing behavior," said Ed Carney, a Cisco vice president.
Uptown buildings might compete with each other to save power. Their total energy use will be compared with that of Raleigh, Atlanta and New York.
"The real power of smart grid lies in the power of information," said Yi Deng, dean of UNC Charlotte's College of Computing and Informatics, which will help Duke analyze the energy data that's produced.
"A substantial part is behavior and how can you better manage the buildings. Right now, we don't have the information to answer those questions."
Commercial buildings waste about 30 percent of the energy they buy, the Environmental Protection Agency says. Bank of America and Wells Fargo, which together control 10 million square feet uptown, have both set corporate energy-saving goals and erected new towers that meet high efficiency standards.
Charlotte has also staked a claim as an energy capital because of the presence of Duke, 13,000 energy-related jobs in the broader region and training programs such as UNCC's Energy Production & Infrastructure Center.
"We are the right city at the right time," said Brett Carter, president of Duke Energy North Carolina.
Wednesday, September 22, 2010
Electrical Energy Management
On ESI-Africa dated 29th of April 2010 - President Jacob Zuma has called on South Africans to save energy in an effort to avoid the load-shedding that plunged the country into darkness in 2007 and 2008.
“As we continue to look for other alternatives to save energy, let me remind all that we must continue to save electricity. We must switch off our appliances when they are not in use. Let us share this responsibility as citizens of this country and electricity users." said Zuma.
In the region of Gauteng in April and May large areas have suffered from further electricity blackouts, notably the East Rand in Johannesburg. It is now obvious that Eskom is still not managing to meet the high demand for electricity. As the winter weather closes in, so does higher electricity demand due to electrical heaters and warming devices, which means more electricity blackouts if we don’t do something about our electricity usage.
That said, even if electricity blackouts are not affecting you directly, the new prices definitely will. The increases announced in February 2010 will total to 75.8% from 2010 to 2013. This is without the increase of 31% last year, which will take the increases in electricity up to a staggering 106.8%.
If not the load-shedding, then the price of electricity is forcing us all consumers to start thinking of cutting down on use or at least making usage of electricity more efficient. Taking responsibility means that it is time to seriously start looking at managing our electricity consumption. To start saving we must start measuring our electricity consumption, because we can’t save something we can’t measure.
You can save 20%-40% on your electricity bill. To start saving we suggest you start measuring your electricity consumption with electricity monitors and make modifications to you consumption so that you can reduce your bills and help us all, just maybe save on having to endure winter blackouts.
“As we continue to look for other alternatives to save energy, let me remind all that we must continue to save electricity. We must switch off our appliances when they are not in use. Let us share this responsibility as citizens of this country and electricity users." said Zuma.
In the region of Gauteng in April and May large areas have suffered from further electricity blackouts, notably the East Rand in Johannesburg. It is now obvious that Eskom is still not managing to meet the high demand for electricity. As the winter weather closes in, so does higher electricity demand due to electrical heaters and warming devices, which means more electricity blackouts if we don’t do something about our electricity usage.
That said, even if electricity blackouts are not affecting you directly, the new prices definitely will. The increases announced in February 2010 will total to 75.8% from 2010 to 2013. This is without the increase of 31% last year, which will take the increases in electricity up to a staggering 106.8%.
If not the load-shedding, then the price of electricity is forcing us all consumers to start thinking of cutting down on use or at least making usage of electricity more efficient. Taking responsibility means that it is time to seriously start looking at managing our electricity consumption. To start saving we must start measuring our electricity consumption, because we can’t save something we can’t measure.
You can save 20%-40% on your electricity bill. To start saving we suggest you start measuring your electricity consumption with electricity monitors and make modifications to you consumption so that you can reduce your bills and help us all, just maybe save on having to endure winter blackouts.
Tuesday, September 14, 2010
Lighting control and Energy Management
Fluorescent Magnetic T12 Ballast Phaseout: It's Time to Upgrade Existing Lighting and Control Systems
by Craig DiLouie, Lighting Controls Association
Posted August 2010
Last month, we covered regulations covering fluorescent ballasts that have essentially eliminated the magnetic T12 ballast with few exceptions, including F40T12, F96T12 and F96T12HO ballasts for both full-wattage and energy-saving versions of these lamps.
Two years later, in 2012, additional regulations will take effect, creating new energy standards for selected linear T5, T8 and T12 lamps. The net result, with few exceptions, is a majority of 4-ft. linear and 2-ft. U-shaped T12, many 8-ft. T12 and T12HO, and some low-color-rendering 4-ft. T8 lamps will be eliminated.
Based on these facts, one could make a simple argument that it is now time to upgrade existing lighting and control systems to improve energy efficiency and lighting quality.
Replace individually or in a planned upgrade?
A basic choice will be whether to replace the existing T12 lighting system all at once in a planned upgrade or replace individual components as they fail.
At first glance, replacing individual components as they fail appears to be the easiest path forward as it avoids the upfront cost of equipment and installation labor and potential disruption of a renovation.
However, a planned upgrade presents several major advantages:
good lighting performance, uniformity and space appearance by switching from T12 to T8 all at once, avoiding confusion resulting from maintaining two incompatibility lamp and ballast types in inventory; and most importantly:
higher energy savings and greater lighting quality resulting from reevaluating the existing lighting system and upgrading it to current best practices. Once a decision is made to upgrade the lighting system, the owner has taken control of the situation and can maximize the benefit of the new lighting.
The biggest energy-saving and lighting quality opportunities are in:
older, overlighted buildings that use older technologies such as T12 systems
where utility costs are very high; and
where lighting is uncontrolled and left ON all night.
T12 systems, for example, can be upgraded to realize energy savings as high as 50% or more in offices, classrooms and other applications, according to the National Lighting Bureau.
Retrofit or redesign?
The next basic choice facing the facility manager is whether to retrofit or redesign. In a retrofit, new lamps and ballasts are installed in existing fixtures and existing controls replaced. In a redesign, the fixtures themselves may be replaced or moved.
Good lighting quality accounts for factors such as visual comfort, glare, uniformity, color rendering, lighting on walls and ceilings, and harsh patterns, shadows and flicker. If the building’s primary spaces have been retasked to new purposes for which the existing lighting system provides insufficient lighting conditions, or uniformity is poor, or there is little light on walls and ceilings, or there are obvious, unaddressed sources of glare, and if occupants are unhappy with their lighting, then the space may benefit from a redesign.
The owner may benefit prior to the upgrade by simply asking occupants—the people who use the lighting regularly—whether they are satisfied with their lighting, what their lighting problems are, and what they want.
Lamps and ballasts
Energy-efficient lighting technologies have had decades to develop and so many good, reliable solutions are now available from manufacturers.
Regarding lamps and ballasts, consider T8 systems. There are now 23W, 25W, 28W, 32W (normal output) and 32W (high output, or “Super T8”) T8 lamps available offering a choice of power and light output.
There are also electronic ballasts available with a range of efficiencies and ballast factors enabling further tuning of light output. The most efficient ballasts carry the NEMA Premium mark on the ballast label. Dimmable ballasts are becoming more efficient, versatile and affordable, making dimmable general lighting a reality.
Regarding fixtures, consider T5 systems, direct/indirect lighting and, if recessed, volumetric-distribution fixtures that place some light on walls to eliminate the “cave effect” common with some parabolic fixtures. LED lighting offers exciting opportunities to dramatically improve efficiency but as the overall technology is still relatively new, owners should proceed with caution, particularly when confronted by options such as LED T8 lamp replacements, which have not faired well in independent product testing at the Department of Energy.
Lighting controls
According to the New Buildings Institute, advanced lighting controls can generate up to 50% lighting energy savings in existing buildings. Effective strategies include automatic shutoff, light reduction control, daylight harvesting and demand response.
The biggest challenge to incorporating advanced control strategies to an existing building is adding low-voltage control wiring, generally limiting opportunities for installation of sophisticated control systems. As a result, the simplest upgrade options involve the least amount of rewiring or simply swapping out older ballasts and controls for new controls.
The easiest controls retrofit involves replacing components with the least amount of rewiring. While this often leads to occupancy sensors and lighting panelboard upgrades, new wireless controls and the falling cost of dimming ballasts are expanding the potential role for lighting control in building upgrades. Photo courtesy of WattStopper.
The first lighting control strategy to consider is automatic shutoff. It is considered the easiest, lowest-risk path to energy savings and is relatively simple to set up and commission. If LEED (for existing buildings) is used as a model path or actual requirement for the upgrade, this will be essential, as LEED requires that buildings meet the ASHRAE 90.1 energy standard as a prerequisite to gaining points for transcending it.
Start at the lighting panel. Are there large, open spaces in the building with predictable hours of operation? Are there public spaces where the lights must stay ON even when a space is unoccupied? If so, consider upgrading the existing lighting panelboard to an intelligent lighting control panel that offers programmable scheduling. Be sure to give local users override capability with a maximum 2- to 4-hour override.
Next, consider replacing the wall switch. Are there smaller, enclosed spaces in the building that are intermittently occupied during the day and are lighted with instant-ON light sources? If so, consider replacing toggle wall switches with occupancy sensors. If there is a clear line of sight between the switch and the primary task area, PIR sensors can present a cost-effective option. If greater sensitivity is needed for small levels of motion or if there are obstacles between the wall switch and the task, consider ultrasonic. For the ultimate in reliability, consider dual-technology sensors.
If the space is a private office already circuited for bilevel switching, consider replacing the manual switches with a manual-ON/auto-OFF occupancy sensor for the highest positive energy savings and some flexibility. If the space requires an occupancy sensor be installed in a location other than at the wall switch, consider wireless occupancy sensors that run on batteries or ambient light in the space harvested using an integral solar cell. These sensors install anywhere within range of the receiver switch, which replaces the wall switch, and present no wiring requirements, although wireless technology is presently a premium option. Similarly, wireless photosensors are also available.
If the upgrade involves replacing light fixtures, consider integral controls. In a workstation-specific open office lighting layout, for example, direct/indirect fixtures can be installed that include an integral occupancy sensor and/or, if placed in a daylight zone, a photosensor and dimmable ballast, with the control wiring located inside the fixture. If the space is a hibay lighting application where metal halide is being replaced by fluorescent fixtures, consider fixture-integrated or mounted line-voltage occupancy sensors, which can be an economical addition to a new fluorescent fixture or separate add-on that is field installed. Photosensors could be similarly added for control of fixtures mounted over spaces that receive ample daylight from skylights.
Light levels can be stepped using a single ballast called a step dimming or light level switching ballast. If the existing space is already circuited for bilevel switching, step-dimming ballasts can be installed to ensure light levels are reduced uniformly, without a checkerboard pattern. These ballasts can operate without low-voltage wiring. Most products are programmed-start T8 ballasts, which may experience a loss of efficacy during light level reduction; dimming to 50%, for example, may reduce wattage by 40%. Instant-start step-dimming ballasts are available that offer proportional reductions in light output and input watts, although instant-start operation is not recommended by some manufacturers for applications with five or more ON/OFF cycles per day. Other hi/lo switching opportunities include corridors that receive a lot of daylight (with a photosensor) and stairwells (with an occupancy sensor).
Continuous-dimming ballast costs have been falling for years, putting this control method within reach of many upgrade projects. Efficiency has also improved such that dimmable ballasts are available that are as efficacious as standard instant-start fixed-output ballasts. Look for the NEMA Premium label for the most efficient ballasts.
Step-dimming ballasts provide uniform light level reduction without a checkerboard pattern. Photo courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies.
Some dimming ballasts are available that communicate with lighting controls using existing line-voltage wiring. Two-wire phase-control dimming ballasts use existing line-voltage lines for both power and communication and are suitable for any application where greater flexibility is desired, such as conference rooms, boardrooms and private offices. A dimming range of 100-5% is available for T8 lamps and CFLs, and 100-1% for T5HO lamps. The lighting is typically controlled via local controls accessible to occupants.
Line-voltage stepped dimming (“load shedding” or “demand response”) ballasts may be combined with specialized energy management systems enabling a preset light level reduction, with a fade transition between light levels, in response to a variety of control inputs such as photosensors and schedules. The ballast may be combined with a signal transmitter that initiates load shedding in response to some type of demand response program. While demand response is still emerging as a trend, it will likely play a larger role in lighting in the future.
The ultimate control upgrade involves creating a fully realized lighting control system combining multiple strategies. In spaces where stationary tasks are performed, dimming will be preferable to switching while the space is occupied. If the ballasts will be replaced with dimmable ballasts, then multiple strategies should be enacted to make this installation more economical. When wiring a control system enacting multiple strategies around a dimmable ballast, one should consider a digital communication architecture, which eliminates multiple home runs and produces installation savings. If a digital architecture is chosen, one can consider creating a system out of DALI-compatible components, or specifying a proprietary system built around relays in distributed power packs and occupancy sensors, or digital dimming ballasts.
Finally, if the existing installation already includes automatic lighting controls that will be retained after the upgrade, ensure these controls are working properly by re-commissioning them as part of the project. The system may have been improperly designed, installed or commissioned when first put in place, or its operating parameters may have drifted out of sync with the space and how its lighting is used. Re-commissioning can therefore become a source of energy savings by itself.
The bottom line is that in most spaces, simple control strategies can be economically incorporated into lamp/ballast upgrades and fixture replacement projects, accelerating energy savings and, in some cases, improving flexibility.
by Craig DiLouie, Lighting Controls Association
Posted August 2010
Last month, we covered regulations covering fluorescent ballasts that have essentially eliminated the magnetic T12 ballast with few exceptions, including F40T12, F96T12 and F96T12HO ballasts for both full-wattage and energy-saving versions of these lamps.
Two years later, in 2012, additional regulations will take effect, creating new energy standards for selected linear T5, T8 and T12 lamps. The net result, with few exceptions, is a majority of 4-ft. linear and 2-ft. U-shaped T12, many 8-ft. T12 and T12HO, and some low-color-rendering 4-ft. T8 lamps will be eliminated.
Based on these facts, one could make a simple argument that it is now time to upgrade existing lighting and control systems to improve energy efficiency and lighting quality.
Replace individually or in a planned upgrade?
A basic choice will be whether to replace the existing T12 lighting system all at once in a planned upgrade or replace individual components as they fail.
At first glance, replacing individual components as they fail appears to be the easiest path forward as it avoids the upfront cost of equipment and installation labor and potential disruption of a renovation.
However, a planned upgrade presents several major advantages:
good lighting performance, uniformity and space appearance by switching from T12 to T8 all at once, avoiding confusion resulting from maintaining two incompatibility lamp and ballast types in inventory; and most importantly:
higher energy savings and greater lighting quality resulting from reevaluating the existing lighting system and upgrading it to current best practices. Once a decision is made to upgrade the lighting system, the owner has taken control of the situation and can maximize the benefit of the new lighting.
The biggest energy-saving and lighting quality opportunities are in:
older, overlighted buildings that use older technologies such as T12 systems
where utility costs are very high; and
where lighting is uncontrolled and left ON all night.
T12 systems, for example, can be upgraded to realize energy savings as high as 50% or more in offices, classrooms and other applications, according to the National Lighting Bureau.
Retrofit or redesign?
The next basic choice facing the facility manager is whether to retrofit or redesign. In a retrofit, new lamps and ballasts are installed in existing fixtures and existing controls replaced. In a redesign, the fixtures themselves may be replaced or moved.
Good lighting quality accounts for factors such as visual comfort, glare, uniformity, color rendering, lighting on walls and ceilings, and harsh patterns, shadows and flicker. If the building’s primary spaces have been retasked to new purposes for which the existing lighting system provides insufficient lighting conditions, or uniformity is poor, or there is little light on walls and ceilings, or there are obvious, unaddressed sources of glare, and if occupants are unhappy with their lighting, then the space may benefit from a redesign.
The owner may benefit prior to the upgrade by simply asking occupants—the people who use the lighting regularly—whether they are satisfied with their lighting, what their lighting problems are, and what they want.
Lamps and ballasts
Energy-efficient lighting technologies have had decades to develop and so many good, reliable solutions are now available from manufacturers.
Regarding lamps and ballasts, consider T8 systems. There are now 23W, 25W, 28W, 32W (normal output) and 32W (high output, or “Super T8”) T8 lamps available offering a choice of power and light output.
There are also electronic ballasts available with a range of efficiencies and ballast factors enabling further tuning of light output. The most efficient ballasts carry the NEMA Premium mark on the ballast label. Dimmable ballasts are becoming more efficient, versatile and affordable, making dimmable general lighting a reality.
Regarding fixtures, consider T5 systems, direct/indirect lighting and, if recessed, volumetric-distribution fixtures that place some light on walls to eliminate the “cave effect” common with some parabolic fixtures. LED lighting offers exciting opportunities to dramatically improve efficiency but as the overall technology is still relatively new, owners should proceed with caution, particularly when confronted by options such as LED T8 lamp replacements, which have not faired well in independent product testing at the Department of Energy.
Lighting controls
According to the New Buildings Institute, advanced lighting controls can generate up to 50% lighting energy savings in existing buildings. Effective strategies include automatic shutoff, light reduction control, daylight harvesting and demand response.
The biggest challenge to incorporating advanced control strategies to an existing building is adding low-voltage control wiring, generally limiting opportunities for installation of sophisticated control systems. As a result, the simplest upgrade options involve the least amount of rewiring or simply swapping out older ballasts and controls for new controls.
The easiest controls retrofit involves replacing components with the least amount of rewiring. While this often leads to occupancy sensors and lighting panelboard upgrades, new wireless controls and the falling cost of dimming ballasts are expanding the potential role for lighting control in building upgrades. Photo courtesy of WattStopper.
The first lighting control strategy to consider is automatic shutoff. It is considered the easiest, lowest-risk path to energy savings and is relatively simple to set up and commission. If LEED (for existing buildings) is used as a model path or actual requirement for the upgrade, this will be essential, as LEED requires that buildings meet the ASHRAE 90.1 energy standard as a prerequisite to gaining points for transcending it.
Start at the lighting panel. Are there large, open spaces in the building with predictable hours of operation? Are there public spaces where the lights must stay ON even when a space is unoccupied? If so, consider upgrading the existing lighting panelboard to an intelligent lighting control panel that offers programmable scheduling. Be sure to give local users override capability with a maximum 2- to 4-hour override.
Next, consider replacing the wall switch. Are there smaller, enclosed spaces in the building that are intermittently occupied during the day and are lighted with instant-ON light sources? If so, consider replacing toggle wall switches with occupancy sensors. If there is a clear line of sight between the switch and the primary task area, PIR sensors can present a cost-effective option. If greater sensitivity is needed for small levels of motion or if there are obstacles between the wall switch and the task, consider ultrasonic. For the ultimate in reliability, consider dual-technology sensors.
If the space is a private office already circuited for bilevel switching, consider replacing the manual switches with a manual-ON/auto-OFF occupancy sensor for the highest positive energy savings and some flexibility. If the space requires an occupancy sensor be installed in a location other than at the wall switch, consider wireless occupancy sensors that run on batteries or ambient light in the space harvested using an integral solar cell. These sensors install anywhere within range of the receiver switch, which replaces the wall switch, and present no wiring requirements, although wireless technology is presently a premium option. Similarly, wireless photosensors are also available.
If the upgrade involves replacing light fixtures, consider integral controls. In a workstation-specific open office lighting layout, for example, direct/indirect fixtures can be installed that include an integral occupancy sensor and/or, if placed in a daylight zone, a photosensor and dimmable ballast, with the control wiring located inside the fixture. If the space is a hibay lighting application where metal halide is being replaced by fluorescent fixtures, consider fixture-integrated or mounted line-voltage occupancy sensors, which can be an economical addition to a new fluorescent fixture or separate add-on that is field installed. Photosensors could be similarly added for control of fixtures mounted over spaces that receive ample daylight from skylights.
Light levels can be stepped using a single ballast called a step dimming or light level switching ballast. If the existing space is already circuited for bilevel switching, step-dimming ballasts can be installed to ensure light levels are reduced uniformly, without a checkerboard pattern. These ballasts can operate without low-voltage wiring. Most products are programmed-start T8 ballasts, which may experience a loss of efficacy during light level reduction; dimming to 50%, for example, may reduce wattage by 40%. Instant-start step-dimming ballasts are available that offer proportional reductions in light output and input watts, although instant-start operation is not recommended by some manufacturers for applications with five or more ON/OFF cycles per day. Other hi/lo switching opportunities include corridors that receive a lot of daylight (with a photosensor) and stairwells (with an occupancy sensor).
Continuous-dimming ballast costs have been falling for years, putting this control method within reach of many upgrade projects. Efficiency has also improved such that dimmable ballasts are available that are as efficacious as standard instant-start fixed-output ballasts. Look for the NEMA Premium label for the most efficient ballasts.
Step-dimming ballasts provide uniform light level reduction without a checkerboard pattern. Photo courtesy of Universal Lighting Technologies.
Some dimming ballasts are available that communicate with lighting controls using existing line-voltage wiring. Two-wire phase-control dimming ballasts use existing line-voltage lines for both power and communication and are suitable for any application where greater flexibility is desired, such as conference rooms, boardrooms and private offices. A dimming range of 100-5% is available for T8 lamps and CFLs, and 100-1% for T5HO lamps. The lighting is typically controlled via local controls accessible to occupants.
Line-voltage stepped dimming (“load shedding” or “demand response”) ballasts may be combined with specialized energy management systems enabling a preset light level reduction, with a fade transition between light levels, in response to a variety of control inputs such as photosensors and schedules. The ballast may be combined with a signal transmitter that initiates load shedding in response to some type of demand response program. While demand response is still emerging as a trend, it will likely play a larger role in lighting in the future.
The ultimate control upgrade involves creating a fully realized lighting control system combining multiple strategies. In spaces where stationary tasks are performed, dimming will be preferable to switching while the space is occupied. If the ballasts will be replaced with dimmable ballasts, then multiple strategies should be enacted to make this installation more economical. When wiring a control system enacting multiple strategies around a dimmable ballast, one should consider a digital communication architecture, which eliminates multiple home runs and produces installation savings. If a digital architecture is chosen, one can consider creating a system out of DALI-compatible components, or specifying a proprietary system built around relays in distributed power packs and occupancy sensors, or digital dimming ballasts.
Finally, if the existing installation already includes automatic lighting controls that will be retained after the upgrade, ensure these controls are working properly by re-commissioning them as part of the project. The system may have been improperly designed, installed or commissioned when first put in place, or its operating parameters may have drifted out of sync with the space and how its lighting is used. Re-commissioning can therefore become a source of energy savings by itself.
The bottom line is that in most spaces, simple control strategies can be economically incorporated into lamp/ballast upgrades and fixture replacement projects, accelerating energy savings and, in some cases, improving flexibility.
Wednesday, September 1, 2010
Electrical Energy Management
The Energy Management Standard is Coming, is Your Organization Ready?
Whether in the United States or across the world, in industrial or commercial settings, energy must be managed. End users of energy often cannot control energy prices, political events or global economic shocks, but they can manage how they use energy. The ISO Energy Management Standard (ISO 50001) offers a promising mechanism to help end users proactively assess, measure and manage their energy consumption.
The ISO 50001 Energy Management System Standard has the potential to impact up to 60 percent of global energy demand based on broad applicability across multiple sectors. Once finalized in 2011, the ISO 50001 Standard will be able to help a wide variety of organizations in multiple sectors implement an energy management system for continuous improvement. By conforming to this standard, companies and other organizations will have a methodology that will enable them to manage energy use, address carbon emissions and demonstrate corporate social responsibility.
ISO 50001 Energy Management Standard
Today, energy management is a subjective concept with an array of programs across companies and institutions. The ISO 50001 Standard addresses this very issue. As an internationally recognized standard, ISO 50001 will provide a uniform framework under which an adopter may develop its own Energy Management Plan tailored to its personnel, facilities, operations and resources. ISO 50001 also will help companies and governments achieve continuous progress toward energy efficiency gains, quantifiable energy reduction and third-party verification of energy savings.
ISO 50001 currently is available as a Draft International Standard. The standard is being developed through a project committee consisting of 41 participating countries and 10 countries with observer status and is expected to be approved and published by the middle of 2011.
The ISO 50001 Standard will establish a framework for industrial plants and commercial facilities, as well as government and institutional organizations to manage energy use by integrating energy efficiency into their management practices. This is accomplished by requiring organizations to establish, implement, maintain and improve their energy management systems, enabling systematic achievement of continual improvement in energy performance, energy efficiency and energy conservation. To this end, the ISO 50001 Standard contains requirements on energy supply and consumption, including:
•Measurement
•Documentation and reporting
•Design and procurement practices for energy-using equipment and systems
•Processes and personnel
ISO 50001 applies to all factors that can be monitored and influenced by the organization to affect energy use. In addition, the ISO 50001 Standard is designed to be used independently and to be compatible with other ISO management systems such as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, which are widely used worldwide.
Implementation of the ISO 50001 Standard could have several significant potential impacts. By managing energy more effectively, industrial plants and commercial and institutional buildings could achieve energy-savings of between 10 and 30 percent, and even more in some cases. Because of its widespread applicability, the ISO 50001 Standard could influence up to 60 percents of the world’s energy use across many economic sectors.
Adoption of ISO 50001 will be driven by companies seeking an internationally recognized response to:
•Corporate sustainability programs
•Energy cost-reduction initiatives
•Demand created along the manufacturing supply chain
•Future national cap and trade programs; carbon or energy taxes; increasing market value of “green manufacturing” and reduced carbon footprint
•International climate agreements
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) supports the development of ISO 50001 because it will complement their efforts to reduce energy intensity in U.S. industrial facilities. The DOE views the ISO 50001 Standard as a foundational tool that any facility can use to manage energy consumption. To that end, DOE supports the industry-led Superior Energy Performance (SEP) program; a voluntary program that certifies industrial facilities for energy efficiency; a key condition of certification is conformance to ISO 50001.
Whether in the United States or across the world, in industrial or commercial settings, energy must be managed. End users of energy often cannot control energy prices, political events or global economic shocks, but they can manage how they use energy. The ISO Energy Management Standard (ISO 50001) offers a promising mechanism to help end users proactively assess, measure and manage their energy consumption.
The ISO 50001 Energy Management System Standard has the potential to impact up to 60 percent of global energy demand based on broad applicability across multiple sectors. Once finalized in 2011, the ISO 50001 Standard will be able to help a wide variety of organizations in multiple sectors implement an energy management system for continuous improvement. By conforming to this standard, companies and other organizations will have a methodology that will enable them to manage energy use, address carbon emissions and demonstrate corporate social responsibility.
ISO 50001 Energy Management Standard
Today, energy management is a subjective concept with an array of programs across companies and institutions. The ISO 50001 Standard addresses this very issue. As an internationally recognized standard, ISO 50001 will provide a uniform framework under which an adopter may develop its own Energy Management Plan tailored to its personnel, facilities, operations and resources. ISO 50001 also will help companies and governments achieve continuous progress toward energy efficiency gains, quantifiable energy reduction and third-party verification of energy savings.
ISO 50001 currently is available as a Draft International Standard. The standard is being developed through a project committee consisting of 41 participating countries and 10 countries with observer status and is expected to be approved and published by the middle of 2011.
The ISO 50001 Standard will establish a framework for industrial plants and commercial facilities, as well as government and institutional organizations to manage energy use by integrating energy efficiency into their management practices. This is accomplished by requiring organizations to establish, implement, maintain and improve their energy management systems, enabling systematic achievement of continual improvement in energy performance, energy efficiency and energy conservation. To this end, the ISO 50001 Standard contains requirements on energy supply and consumption, including:
•Measurement
•Documentation and reporting
•Design and procurement practices for energy-using equipment and systems
•Processes and personnel
ISO 50001 applies to all factors that can be monitored and influenced by the organization to affect energy use. In addition, the ISO 50001 Standard is designed to be used independently and to be compatible with other ISO management systems such as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, which are widely used worldwide.
Implementation of the ISO 50001 Standard could have several significant potential impacts. By managing energy more effectively, industrial plants and commercial and institutional buildings could achieve energy-savings of between 10 and 30 percent, and even more in some cases. Because of its widespread applicability, the ISO 50001 Standard could influence up to 60 percents of the world’s energy use across many economic sectors.
Adoption of ISO 50001 will be driven by companies seeking an internationally recognized response to:
•Corporate sustainability programs
•Energy cost-reduction initiatives
•Demand created along the manufacturing supply chain
•Future national cap and trade programs; carbon or energy taxes; increasing market value of “green manufacturing” and reduced carbon footprint
•International climate agreements
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) supports the development of ISO 50001 because it will complement their efforts to reduce energy intensity in U.S. industrial facilities. The DOE views the ISO 50001 Standard as a foundational tool that any facility can use to manage energy consumption. To that end, DOE supports the industry-led Superior Energy Performance (SEP) program; a voluntary program that certifies industrial facilities for energy efficiency; a key condition of certification is conformance to ISO 50001.
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